Political, business or cultural sites that clearly support one position are also suspect. a story to its website saying that police in Nova Scotia were banning drivers from eating breakfast sandwiches. This is why I will employ a multinominal logistic regression, a technique suitable for mutually exclusive variables with multiple discrete outcomes. = x_1, \ldots ,X_p = x_p} \right]1}}{{1 + \mathop {\sum }\nolimits_{l = 1}^{J - 1} e^{\beta _{0l} + \beta _{1l}X_1 + \ldots + \beta _{pl}X_p}}}$$, $$\frac{{p_j\left( X \right)}}{{p_J\left( X \right)}} = e^{\beta _{0j} + \beta _{1j}X_1 + \ldots + \beta _{pj}X_p}$$, $${{{\mathrm{log}}}}\left( {\frac{{p_j\left( X \right)}}{{p_J\left( X \right)}}} \right) = \beta _{0j} + \beta _{1j}X_1 + \ldots + \beta _{pj}X_p$$, $${\mathrm{log}}\left( {\frac{{P\left( {{\mathrm{cat}} = j = {\mathrm{fake}}} \right. 15). 2, 2017; Jolley, D., & Douglas, K. M., Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Vol. For lower levels of complexity (readability=6.78), the probabilities for a given text being classified in each category is: factual (p=0.015, CI=[0.013, 0.017]), clickbait (p=0.145, [CI=0.140, 0.149]), conspiracy theories (p=0.160, CI=[0.156, 0.166]), fake news (p=0.373, CI=[0.366, 0.380]), hate speech (p=0.106, CI=[0.102, 0.109]), junk science (p=0.060, CI=[0.058, 0.061]) and rumor (p=0.141, CI=[0.136, 0.147]). Harvard Law Schools Cass R. Sunstein says as social media has made the world smaller and more connected, its also driven people further apart, pushing them into fragmented camps, which threatens democracy. First differences of the multinominal logit modelPerplexity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111(24):87888790, Kulkarni KK, Kalro AD, Sharma D, Sharma P (2020) A typology of viral ad sharers using sentiment analysis. (2018). Trend Cogn Sci 7(10):454459, Fowler JH, Christakis NA (2009) Dynamic spread of happiness in a large social network: longitudinal analysis over 20 years in the Framingham Heart Study. In several samples, older adults were also less likely to believe coronavirus fake news (Roozenbeek, J., et al., Royal Society Open Science, Vol. Misinformation false or inaccurate information of all kinds, from honest mistakes to conspiracy theories and its more intentional subset, disinformation, are both thriving, fueled by a once-in-a-generation pandemic, extreme political polarization and a brave new world of social media. The following findings outline some individual differences psychologists have identified, but they should not be used to generalize across groups regarding belief in misinformation. PubMed For any given text, there is a probability p for each word to appear. im just correcting some of the misinformation, that you thought was correct. Like in sentiment analysis, morality is measured by counting the frequency of moral words in each text. I repeat this process 100 times and average the results for the starting and ending points. He says his team hopes to reach those groups through its partnerships with organizations like the WHO, which can market the game on Facebook, Twitter, and other social media platforms. Step 5: Esthetic Analysis. Participants are asked to check if there is a lack of style guide, a frequent use of caps, or any other hyperbolic word choices. The results also highlight the importance of the efforts of public and private institutions to enhance media literacy (European Commission, 2018; Maksl et al., 2016). Building upon entropy, perplexity measures the amount of randomness in a text: where in our case is 2, and the exponent is the cross-entropy. The objective was not to provide the most detailed model to describe misinformation, but a parsimonious description of key features. Sources that traffic in rumors, gossip, innuendo, and unverified claims. Misinformation has even spurred violence, for instance when a conspiracy theorist fired a gun inside Washington, D.C.-based pizzeria Comet Ping Pong in 2016. Hidden colors: a documentary using Half truths/misinformation to Extort The black community - YouTube AboutPressCopyrightContact usCreatorsAdvertiseDevelopersTermsPrivacyPolicy & SafetyHow. The story was correct for the provinces 155,000 residents, but wrong for the more than 5.8 million people who viewed it on Facebook over the following six months. advertorial with the headline, Jagmeet Singh shows off his new mansion. Those who clicked would have had to go to the 145th page of the slideshow to see an image of the federal NDP leader next to photos of a mansion. Open websites such as Wikipedia, which anyone can edit, should contain sources or links that can be checked. Regarding cognitive effort, extant research in the human cognition and behavioral sciences can be leveraged to identify misinformation through quantitative measures. J Exp Psychol Gen 149:118, Bai X (2011) Predicting consumer sentiments from online text. S3, 2020). For example, a Vancouver newspaper ran an online GfK Market Intell Rev 5(1):1823, Bessi A, Coletto M, Davidescu GA, Scala A, Caldarelli G, Quattrociocchi W (2015) Science vs conspiracy: collective narratives in the age of misinformation. (2021, March 1). The length of sentences and words are precisely the fundamental parameters of the Flesch-Kincaid index, the readability variable. The EU is responsible for the flood of terrorist and Islamists into France (). 88, No. The information is priceless. As an educator I HIGHLY recommend 'Hidden Colors' for EVERYONE. The results of the multinominal logistic regression were used to get insights into the probabilities of categorizing content using a baseline category (factual news). However, investing in media literacy is particularly important in developing countries, where there are millions of Internet users with low-literacy rates (Mustaffa et al., 2007; Sun & Nekmat, 2008). Therefore, to calculate the expected value I apply the same procedure for the predicted value and average over the fundamental uncertainty of the m simulations (in this case, m=100). Next, I examined perplexity with the following results. In general, more advanced and diverse language allows to encode more complex ideas (Ellis & Yuan, 2004), which generates a higher cognitive load (Swabey et al., 2016). These misinformation categories are compared with factual news measuring the cognitive effort needed to process the content (grammar and lexical complexity) and its emotional evocation (sentiment analysis and appeal to morality). While the problem may seem too nebulous and out of control to fix, there are actions we can take as individuals and as a society to help control the dangerous spread of misinformation. Whoif anyoneshould stop it? Total price: $83.08. Starting in the 1970s, psychologists showed that even after misinformation is corrected, false beliefs can still persist (Anderson, C. A., et al., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. Inauguration events for Claudine Gay, Harvards 30th president, will take place on September 29 in Tercentenary Theatre. PubMed Central Nearly 200,000 middle- and high-school students have completed those courses and the organizations newsletters reach about 40,000 people each week. If its false, or very old, or taken out of context, there wont be other sources reporting the same thing. In particular, I analyze 92,112 news articles with a median of 461 words per article (with a range of 201 to 1961 words and 58,087,516 total words) to uncover the features that differentiate factual news and six types of misinformation categories using a multinominal logistic regression (see Methods). Why is the Empire the Bad Guys in Star Wars? Learning at Harvard can happen for every type of learner, at any phase of life. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077695816651970, Manzoor IS, Singla J, Nikita (2019) Fake news detection using machine learning approaches: a systematic review. Disinformation: The creation and distribution of intentionally false information, usually for political ends (scams, hoaxes, forgeries). This series of films serves to document this as once again its important to be reminded just what people of color have had to go through over the years. Even in the best of all possible worlds, correcting misinformation is not an easy task.. text or in person, ask them where they got the information. Perspective is extremely important when it comes to something such as this since if one is looking from their own perspective and needs to look from anothers then theres a good chance that theyll fail to see the overall point unless they decide to step out of their own way and see things from anothers eyes. Whats the whole story? Beyond the small effect, these systems rely on content or sources that have already been flagged as potential misinformation. B Clustering results with more than two clusters. Thanks for reading! Ideas and assistance for your trip to our campus. This is especially relevant for people with low levels of media literacy (Lazer et al., 2018) because the results show that, in general, misinformation requires less cognitive effort for being processed and is more reliant on emotions than factual information: it is easier to read, and falsified content creators use a less diverse vocabulary, which may explain why misinformation is more prevalent among low-literacy individuals (Lazer et al., 2018), and more appealing to negative emotions and moral values, which may influence our ability to discern between misinformation and factual content. Flesch-Kincaid is used in different scientific fields like pediatrics (DAlessandro et al., 2001), climate change (De Bruin & Granger Morgan, 2019), tourism (Liu & Park, 2015) or social media (Rajadesingan et al., 2015). 274277, Horberg EJ, Oveis C, Keltner D (2011) Emotions as moral amplifiers: An appraisal tendency approach to the influences of distinct emotions upon moral judgment. Wrong audience. Pasquetto, I. V., et al.,The Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 2020, The debunking handbook 2020 Next, for the cognitive effort measured through perplexity, one can see that lower levels of perplexity (perplexity=91), the probabilities for a given text being classified in each category is: factual (p=0.001, CI=[0.001, 0.002]), clickbait (p=0.076, CI=[0.073, 0.079]), conspiracy theories (p=0.206, CI=[0.201, 0.212]), fake news (p=0.213, CI=[0.208, 0.218]), hate speech (p=0.216, CI=[0.211, 0.222]), junk science (p=0.049, CI=[0.046, 0.050]) and rumor (p=0.239, CI=[0.235, 0.246]). A short guide to the history of fake news and disinformation. For the distance metric I use the Euclidean distance that can be formulated as follows: Regarding the method to merge the sub-clusters in the dendrogram, I employed the unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean. The usual way of measuring polarity in written texts is through sentiment analysis. 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