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In the remaining 10 years of his life Rousseau produced primarily autobiographical writings, mostly intended to justify himself against the accusations of his adversaries. In his Notes on England, Montesquieu somewhat comically speaks from personal experience: The women here are reserved, because Englishmen see little of them. Rahe broaches the possibility that Rousseau's deep reflection on Montesquieu's Spirit, which his work for the Dupins afforded him, was the catalyst for Rousseau's illumination that occurred on the road to Vincennes when he was travelling to visit his imprisoned friend Denis Diderot; see Rahe, Soft Despotism, 7377. Here, he began to write his famous autobiography, Confessions, and formally renounced his Genevan citizenship. In this different context religion plays a different role. Dont have an account? Julie succeeds in forgetting her feelings for Saint-Preux and finds happiness as wife, mother, and chatelaine. At each side you can see, in little compartments called boxes, men and women acting out scenes together [des hommes et des femmes qui jouent ensemble des scnes muettes ]. Renew your subscription to regain access to all of our exclusive, ad-free study tools. 11 Paul A. Rahe, Soft Despotism, Democracy's Drift: Montesquieu, Rousseau, Tocqueville, and the Modern Prospect (New Haven, CT, 2009), 120. (one code per order). He continues that this French vivacity is corrected by the politeness it brings us, by inspiring us with a taste for the world and above all for commerce with women [commerce des femmes].Footnote24 He accepts the fact, apparently without regret, that the society of women spoils mores and forms taste [socit des femmes gte les murs, et forme le got]. 45 For Rousseau's association with Geneva both before and after the composition of the Letter, see Richard Whatmore, Against War and Empire: Geneva, Britain and France in the Eighteenth Century (New Haven, CT, 2012), 5497. He was friendly with Enlightenment figures such as Diderot, and even wrote articles for the Encyclopdie, but later quarreled with them. We are also grateful to Robert Devigne, Dennis Rasmussen, and the anonymous reviewers of History of European Ideas for their helpful comments on earlier drafts. They appreciate the routines of country life and enjoy the beauties of the Swiss and Savoyard Alps. [4], He extensively discusses playwright Molire's work, and uses the play Le Misanthrope to exemplify a comedy in which the audience derives immoral pleasure. 69 Letter, 328 (5: 95). As the Letter progresses, Rousseau comes to agree with Montesquieu that theatre, and hence the manners and mores that a people possesses, can be a decisive influence on the way of life of a given people. [1] Rousseau relates the issue of a theatre in Geneva to the broader social context, warning of the potential the theatre has to corrupt the morality in society. Cited by lists all citing articles based on Crossref citations.Articles with the Crossref icon will open in a new tab. Jean Jacques Rousseau (n. 28 iunie 1712, Geneva, Republica Geneva (d) - d. 2 iulie 1778, Ermenonville, Picardia, Frana) a fost un filozof elveian, scriitor i compozitor, unul dintre cei mai ilutri gnditori ai Iluminismului.A influenat hotrtor, alturi de Voltaire i Diderot, spiritul revoluionar, principiile de drept i contiina social a epocii; ideile lui se . After naming these passions in particular, Montesquieu immediately observes: Those who write on morality for us and so strongly proscribe the theaters make us feel sufficiently the power of music on our souls.Footnote16 Thus, Montesquieu here testifies to the power that theatre has over the feelings, and hence the actions, of human beings. Thus, theatre serves to extenuate moral lapses. Amusements are acceptable in moderation, when they are necessary, but they become a burden if they consume the minds of men enough to waste their time. At the same time the book sets out to explore the possibilities of an education for republican citizenship. [5] Ecclesiastical groups as well, namely the Jansenists, harshly condemned the theatre due to it being incompatible with Christian morality. In resisting such influence, Rousseau counters many of Montesquieu's specific arguments and judgements. Mchten Sie Encyclopedie: Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 1754; Copper engraving from: Diderot & d'Alembert 'Encyc kaufen? 10 See John N. Pappas, Rousseau and D'Alembert, PMLA, 75 (1960), 4660 (48); Fonna Forman-Barzilai, The Emergence of Contextualism in Rousseau's Political Thought: The Case of Parisian Theatre in the Lettre D'Alembert, History of Political Thought, 24 (2003), 43564 (436). He begins the first of these two chapters with a bold criticism of Plato, accusing him of promulgating laws that are against nature: If a slave, says Plato, defends himself and kills a free man, he should be treated as a parricide. Rousseau's relationship to the Enlightenment was not a simple one. The best alternative to theatres is open-air festivals, in nature, to provide a unifying, patriotic spirit. [4], The Letter starts off with a more grim and urgent tone, then shifting at the end to a brighter and optimistic one when the community oriented solution to the problem of the theatre is discussed. Both furious with his father's accusation and passionately in love with Aricia, Hippolytus nevertheless resists immoral action on behalf of those passions. Their exchange, collected in volume ten of this acclaimed series, offers a classic debate over the political importance of the arts. 2023 The Foundation for Constitutional Government Inc. All rights reserved. Remarkably, in his Letter to d'Alembert, Rousseau himself transmits this same assessment of the women in England, employing the very adjective that Montesquieu applies to them: English women are gentle and timid [timides].Footnote65 Nevertheless, where Montesquieu perceives this as having lamentable consequences for the English, Rousseau finds admirable results. You'll be billed after your free trial ends. It develops the Romanticism that had already informed his writings on music and perhaps did more than any other single work of literature to influence the spirit of its age. creating and saving your own notes as you read. Listen on ); Episode details. Marshall goes on to suggest that Rousseau's discussion of vanity, amour-propre, is inherently theatrical: the moment that people are aware they must present themselves for others, a theatrical consciousness is fostered such that the character and attributes that a person possesses become indistinguishable from what they seem to be.Footnote58 Rousseau laments that the introduction of theatre in an incorrupt society will induce people to substitute a theatrical jargon for the practice of the virtues.Footnote59 Of course, before Rousseau had offered this analysis, Montesquieu had comically depicted the tendency of social interactions to foster theatrical affectationseven theatrical masksin Rica's mistaken but understandable conflation of the actors and the audience in his description of the theatre in the Persian Letters. He felt, moreover, a strong emotional drive toward the worship of God, whose presence he felt most forcefully in nature, especially in mountains and forests untouched by human hands. His thought marked the end of the . 4. It may be considered to portray Rousseau's vanity, narcissism and biases, but the text could also be thought of more positively; as expressive, lyrical and austere. Jean-Jacques Rousseau & Background on Discourse on Inequality, Philosophical Context: Influences on Discourse of Inequality. Of course, none of this establishes that Montesquieu was not familiar with the work, given his wide reading and the work's wide circulation. Cf. 16 Spirit, 4.8, 41. 1758 marked a break with many of the Enlightenment philosophers; his Letter to d'Alembert attacked d'Alembert's article in the French Encyclopedia on Geneva. Among them, Le Devin du village was the most popular French opera of the eighteenth . For Rousseau, tragedies in particular instil a sense of moral ambiguity by depicting individuals in fundamental, irreconcilable conflicts.Footnote52 Such stories condition people to empathise with characters who have severe moral flaws, yet nonetheless are admirable because they act genuinely. Vous souhaitez acheter Encyclopedie: Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 1754; Copper engraving from: Diderot & d'Alembert 'Encyc? These seemingly fleeting references to this art form should not be overlooked as they clarify and expound upon fundamental aspects of his political theory. This work made final Rousseau's public break with most of the philosophes. While the sociable climate of the theatre cultivates a politeness and gentleness of spirit, the drama on stage reminds us of our natural morality. 66 For example: The English people think it is free. 70 Letter, 325 (5: 92). on 2-49 accounts, Save 30% Rousseau initially declares at the beginning of the Letter that theatre only serves to intensify rather than change established morals, positing that drama would be good for the good and bad for the vicious.Footnote73 He ultimately revises his position, however, as he embraces Montesquieu's views both of the fundamental importance of mores in a given society and of the fact that different societies require different mores as well as different laws and institutions.Footnote74 This change of orientation occurs when Rousseau seems to adopt verbatim Montesquieu's formulation that mores and manners can be effectively changed not through direct legislation but less obtrusively through the introduction of other mores and manners, or via public opinion: matters of morals and universal justice are not arranged, as are those of private justice and strict right, by edicts and laws.Footnote75 This is nearly identical to Montesquieu's advice to the legislator in 19.14: when one wants to change the mores and manners, one must not change them by the laws [] it would be better to change them by other mores and other manners.Footnote76 Rousseau's discussion of the possible elimination of duels in France through the force of public opinion provides his readers with an example of spectacle appealing to amour-propre in such a way as to mitigate vice.Footnote77 Indeed, Rousseau declares in this context: I am convinced that we will never succeed in working these changes without bringing about the intervention of women, on whom men's way of thinking in large measure depends.Footnote78 Thus, not only does Rousseau confirm Montesquieu's teaching regarding the importance of mores, but he also expressly adopts Montesquieu's very conclusion regarding the importance of female society in effecting their change. 5 Howick Place | London | SW1P 1WG. 13 Maurice Cranston, Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 17121754 (Chicago, IL, 1991, first published in 1982), 21315. Rousseau opposed marriage without love (i.e. He considered women, by virtue of their nature, to be the primary agents of moral reform, and that the success of the state depends on the harmony within private, domestic life. In the early 1750s, Rousseau had a string of successes. The main action is on a platform [estrade], called the stage [thtre]. Muralt offers a similar critique in his comments on France. Rousseau could never entertain doubts about God's existence or about the immortality of the soul. It may be important to note that the theatre was a far more powerful cultural force in Rousseau's day than today. And indeed, Rousseau does seem to have recovered his peace of mind in his last years, when he was once again afforded refuge on the estates of great French noblemen, first the Prince de Conti and then the Marquis de Girardin, in whose park at Ermenonville he died. While Montesquieu lavishes distinct praise on a society that permits the formation of taste and promotes the gentleness that comes from commerce, understood both as economic and social exchange, Rousseau resists such influences. 49 Bla Kapossy, Iselin contra Rousseau: Sociable Patriotism and the History of Mankind (Basel, 2006), 68. Having already noted that the French nation is distinguished by its commerce with women, Montesquieu declares that in England the women should scarcely live among men and that, as a result, the English women would be modest, that is, timid [timides].Footnote60 Montesquieu proceeds to condemn the effect that this isolation of women has on English society because men there lack gallantry [galanterie] and throw themselves into a debauchery that would leave them their liberty as well as their leisure.Footnote61 The implication is that because English gentlemen do not seek to win the good regard and affection of their female counterparts in a manner that renders society polite, pleasing, and sometimes indiscreet, but instead spend the majority of their time with other men, and then also frequently visit with prostitutes.Footnote62 The interaction of the sexes in France fosters indiscretions, Montesquieu concedes, but he charges that in England their separation leads to debauchery. From 1742 to 1749, Rousseau lived in Paris, barely earning a living by teaching and by copying music. Use up and down arrows to review and enter to select. Nonetheless, taken together, these apparently contrasting accounts reveal that Montesquieu sees value in the theatrical experience in its entirety. Although Montesquieu nowhere explicitly refers to France in this discussion, he reveals its identity if not through his depiction of a society that exults in a striking une joie dans la vivre, where men and women mingle together freely, then certainly through his use of the first-person plural.Footnote23 Nature, Montesquieu says, has given us a vivacity capable of offending and one apt to make us inconsiderate. Of course, Montesquieu does not broach the specific issue that Rousseau considersthat is, the spread of the theatre in modern times into the small, virtuous mountainside republic. Rousseau engages the Swiss author, Bat Louis de Muralt, to support his claim: It is an error, said the grave Muralt, to hope that the true relations of things will be faithfully presented in the theater.Footnote48 Rousseau is known to have obtained a copy of Muralt's Lettres sur les Anglais et les Franais in 1756, and was undoubtedly influenced by his accounts of French and English society.Footnote49 Muralt's Lettres were written in the 1690s, and widely circulated before being published in Geneva in 1725,Footnote50 which suggests that the works could be a common source for Rousseau and Montesquieu, though it is uncertain whether Montesquieu had read them.Footnote51 In his Letter, Rousseau largely agrees with Muralt's description of French society in particular, including a brief discussion of the theatre. He propelled political and ethical thinking into new channels. Did you know that with a free Taylor & Francis Online account you can gain access to the following benefits? See also Coleman's instructive discussion of Rousseau's proposal: Coleman, Rousseau's Political Imagination, 8389. More importantly, in Discourse on InequalityRousseau is in many ways extremely negative about the progress of reason. As these two leading figures of the Enlightenment argue about censorship, popular versus high culture, and the proper role . Rousseau was particularly opposed to the adoption of French mores in Geneva; see Whatmore, Against War and Empire, 50, 59. 83 Spirit, 19.5, 310 (2: 559). Geneva, which already has a large degree of inequality, does not need any more. From 174041, he worked as a private tutor for Monsieur de Mably, brother of the famous writer, the Abbe de Mably. First, Montesquieu describes them as timide, a term which Rousseau adopts. You are not required to obtain permission to reuse this article in part or whole. When, in 1728, Rousseau found himself locked out of Geneva at night, he decided to travel abroad to seek his fortune. The basic argument of the book, as Rousseau himself expressed it, is that vice and error, which are alien to a childs original nature, are introduced by external agencies, so that the work of a tutor must always be directed to counteracting those forces by manipulating pressures that will work with nature and not against it. They say that however slightly one man knows another, he has the right to suffocate him. 1 Ronald Grimsley, Jean d'Alembert (London, 1963), 5277. An earlier version of this essay was presented at the Northeastern Political Science Association Conference in Philadelphia in 2013. 63 See Spirit, 28.22, 56162, where Montesquieu declares that men's connection to women is related, in part, to the fact that women are quite enlightened judges of a part of the things that constitute personal merit. SparkNotes Plus subscription is $4.99/month or $24.99/year as selected above. In a text directed toward representation, he thus makes semblance, imitation, a category worthy of moral judgement: that is the . The younger thinker also heeds the admonition of the elder that any change must be undertaken with full knowledge of its consequences and hence with supreme care. 57 theatre subverted the immediacy, the joyous spontaneity, the doux sentiment, of republican communion; see Forman-Barzilai, Emergence of Contextualism in Rousseau, 437. Other scholars, in examining Rousseau's Letter in particular, discern limited indications of Montesquieu's influence. Julie was published in 1761 and soon becomes one of the best-selling works of the century. 17 In his consideration of this aspect of Rousseau's argument, Coleman poses the question: Why England? Neither of Coleman's proposed responses include Rousseau's specific response to Montesquieu's Book 19; see Coleman, Rousseau's Political Imagination, 110. SparkNotes PLUS By entering your email address you agree to receive emails from SparkNotes and verify that you are over the age of 13. Rousseau writes that the theatre, at first glance, is a form of amusement. Despite strikingly different conclusions, it is not only their use of similar terms when describing the theatre in general and Phaedra in particular that suggests Rousseau has Montesquieu's arguments in mind while responding publicly to d'Alembert. Eloge de D'Alembert mais Rousseau a quand mme des devoirs. The most immediate result of Rousseau's vision that day in 1749 was the Discourse on the Sciences and Arts. In such a case, theatre is useful [] for covering the ugliness of vice with the polish of forms; in a word, for preventing bad morals from degenerating into brigandage.Footnote88 In speaking somewhat sarcastically about the positive role of theatre in such a corrupt society, Rousseau reveals that he would not recommend the proscription of the theatre in Paris and thus he is not such a one as to venture to constrain its women, make laws to correct their mores, and limit their luxury.Footnote89 Here, Rousseau acknowledges that theatre may, in fact, at least prevent what he sees as the debaucheries of Parisian society. In the play, the main character, Alceste, is good and honest in his relationships with men and made to look ridiculous, whereas Philinte, a deceiver and manipulator, is shown as superior. Therefore, theatres are of little use. The Scottish philosopher David Hume took him there and secured the offer of a pension from King George III; but once in England, Rousseau became aware that certain British intellectuals were making fun of him, and he suspected Hume of participating in the mockery. Montesquieu's own partiality to the gaiety of French society in particular becomes manifest when he defends it against anyone who would propose that it be restricted and reformed: One could constrain its women, make laws to correct their mores, and limit their luxury, but who knows whether one would not lose a certain taste that would be the source of the nation's wealth and a politeness that attracts foreigners to it?Footnote27. 34546). . When d'Alembert approached Montesquieu to contribute to the Encyclopdie, he volunteered to submit in lieu of d'Alembert's requested pieces on democracy and despotism a single entry devoted to Taste, and his corpus testifies to his sustained interest in art and aesthetics.Footnote15 Montesquieu focuses his attention on theatre in particular a handful of times in The Spirit of the Laws and once in the Persian Letters. He continues that a European spirit of gallantry that one can say was little known to the ancients grew out of this desire to please women. By signing up you agree to our terms and privacy policy. An obstreperous critic of the theatre, Rousseau presents its stories not as clarifying and correcting humanity's moral compass, but rather as obscuring it. The principle of the theatre is to please, it is not, Rousseau argues, functional because the characters are always distant from man. Recommended translation: Politics and the Arts:Letter to M. D'Alembert on the Theatre(Agora Paperback Edition);trans. Emphasis added. The Letter on Providence aroused Voltaire's great interest. Although Rousseau offers evaluations of the English and French in opposition to the ones Montesquieu presents, he simultaneously confirms Montesquieu's teachings regarding the powerful effect that women can have on mores and accepts Montesquieu's fundamental tenet regarding the transformative effect of mores on society and government. Many scholars have identified the decisive influence of Montesquieu's treatment of the ancient city in Rousseau's thought more generally, but have not yet fully explored the role that Montesquieu's treatment of the theatre plays in Rousseau's Letter. [4], In spite of the letter being addressed directly to D'Alembert, it is undoubtedly meant to have an effect on the general population. In subjecting the type of sociability that a theatre engenders to finely-grained analysis, Rousseau offers examples and language remarkably akin to those that Montesquieu employs in The Spirit of the Laws, yet he uses Montesquieu's teaching in order to oppose some of the very assertions his predecessor makes. [] Look at most of the plays in the French theater; in practically all of them you will find abominable monsters and atrocious actions, useful, if you please, in making the plays interesting and in giving exercise to the virtues; but they are certainly dangerous in that they accustom the eyes of the People to horrors that they ought not even to know and to crimes they ought not to suppose possible []. In other words, it is easier to not have to deal with corrupted morality and have to change the laws accordingly. See Bat Louis de Muralt, Lettres sur les Anglois et les Franais et sur les voiages, edited by Charles Gould (Geneva, 1974), 244: Ici les Raports vont l'Homme, mais le but du Dramatique, tant uniquement de nous donner du plaisir, ces Raports ne sauroient avoir toute leur justesse, & dans le general, le Pote ne peut que leur faire violence pour les accommoder au got du Public. Together, these apparently contrasting accounts reveal that Montesquieu sees value in the theatrical experience in its entirety toward,! To the following benefits importance of the Enlightenment argue about censorship, popular versus culture... And enjoy the beauties of the Swiss and Savoyard Alps you agree to our terms and privacy policy is... Poses the question: Why England as a private tutor for Monsieur de Mably, brother the! French opera of the famous writer, the Abbe de Mably, brother of Enlightenment! Proper role to not have to change the laws accordingly, ad-free study tools ), 68 Science! 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